Censorship: Fahrenheit 451 and Lounge Chairs

Censorship is what the government or a group of people make people think that there way is the right way of living. In the movie Wall-E, it shows a lot of censorship. They have made an illusion of what the perfect life looks like. Also in the book Fahrenheit 451 written by Ray Bradbury the government have deprived the people of many things. In the movie Wall-Ethe humans have been sent from earth to live in a â€Å"cruise† on space due to pollution on earth has made is impossible for civilization to live on it. On space they have censored all real food, all food is liquid. There are lounge chairs for each person where they do everything they do no leave the lounge chairs only to go to sleep. The lounge chairs able them to communicate with people, play virtual sport and shop. They have been censored of all real things, like actually walking, being active, eating nutritious food, and having face to face conversation; due to this they are all obese and aren’t able to walk due to bone loss. In the book Fahrenheit 451 the government had made what is considered the ideal life. They are censored for thinking because they want everyone to be alike. They have also banned books because they are worthless and have too many ways of life and opinions and they want it to be one way only to be the right way. If they find out you have books they burn the books and your house. They are not very smart because they are deprived from learning a lot because it makes them think. The movie Wall-E and the book Fahrenheit 451 are very similar. What the government has portrayed as the perfect easy way of life is what the people believe is best for them. They have lived by the rules so many years that they don’t remember what the normal way of life is like anymore.

Principles of Economics.Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve Essay

Investment and consumption decreased during the 2007 and 2009 recession. Government expenditure can increase Aggregate demand because it increases liquidity in the market. The government may operate below full employment when job seekers are more than available job hence end up accepting low wages. The multiplier can have a negative effect when people lose jobs as a result of government cut spending. This causes initial decrease in national income. The relationship between marginal propensities and multiplier is that an increase in MPC leads to an increase in multiplier. Similarly, increase in MPS causes a decrease in the multiplier (Farmer, 2008). 2. Fiscal Policy                9/11 attack led to decrease in aggregate demand, in United States. An example of a sector that was hit hard is entertainment and travel sectors. It also led to decrease in personal consumption. The attack caused an increase in equilibrium price levels. This is because there is an inverse relationship between Aggregate demand and equilibrium price levels.An Expansionary fiscal policy and Contractionary fiscal policy is used to increase aggregate demand. Expansionary fiscal policy is a policy used during the recession to increase AD by increasing government spending or decreasing taxes. Contractionary fiscal policy is used during inflation in order to decrease AD by decreasing government spending or increasing taxes (Farmer, 2008). After September 11’s attack, the government increased expenditure in different sectors such as national defense. 3. Money and Banking                Factors that led to the mortgage default crisis is much borrowings and flawed financial modeling majorly based on an assumption that prices of homes only go up, greed and fraud. Mortgage defaults affected lending banks in that their loans were not repaid leading to huge losses. In many cases, they got real estate that was valued far below what mortgage was when borrowers had a note. Default of bonds income backed by mortgage loans was interrupted banks were left with unwanted real estate (Friedman, 2010). Securitization is pooling different types of contractual debt. TARP is a program formed by the government of US to buy assets and equity from institutions that offer financial services in order to strengthen the financial sector. TARP opened a window of opportunity for banks to pay their own debt and acquire other businesses instead of lend money to private sectors. The Federal Reserve injected funds into the credit markets in order to help them lend again. It also reduced the target federal funds rate. Major provisions in the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act include Office of Insurance which creates Federal Insurance Office that monitors aspects of the insurance industry and Consumer Protections that creates Consumer Financial Protection Agency which protects Americans from unfair financial products and services. 4. Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve                The Federal Reserve System refers to the central banking system of United States. Fed was launched in response to a series of financial panics. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta covers the states of Alabama, Georgia and Florida, 74 counties in Tennessee, 38 parishes of Louisiana, and 43 counties of Mississippi. William H. Rogers, Jr is the current Chairman of this Fed. This fed should remain politically independent because its rate is determined by market and is not explicitly determined by the Fed. The target for federal funds is adjusted by 0.25% or 0.50% at any given time. Fed give liquidity to banks to enable them gives credit in times of recession. Federal Open Market Committee is a committee in Federal Reserve System that is charged with the responsibility of overseeing the country’s open market operations. Fed should decrease their rates to help spur the economy of US. This is expansionary monetary policy (Axilrod, 2011). 5. Free Trade                I support free trade and the NAFTA. They are based on comparative advantage. Countries produce what they can export cheaply. US exports goods like corn and meat to Mexico. Some of goods imported into USA include snacks and processed fruits. However, despite the having the benefit of increasing growth and collaboration between countries, free trade has the cost of dumping goods into the country and destroying infant industries. Free trade should be restricted on some goods like natural resources. 6. Foreign Exchange                US dollar is currently losing value against the euro. This is because the European Union is finding solution to Euro crisis. Dollars are supplied by the Central Bank of USA. A dollar loses value when its demand goes down. For example, whenever US citizens buy products from Germany, the demand for Euro goes up against the Dollar. A falling US Dollar increases ones travel expenses. This is because has to use more dollars to buy a foreign currencies which are expensive. However, a cheap dollar is bad for the US economy because it discourages exportation. A free floating exchange rate refers to a monetary system whose exchange rates are free to move due to forces of the market without intervention by the government (Friedman, 2010). References Axilrod, S. H. (2011). Inside the Fed monetary policy and its management, Martin through Greenspan to Bernanke (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. APA formatting by BibMe.org. Farmer, R. E. (2008). Aggregate demand and supply. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Friedman, M., & Heller, W. W. (2010). Monetary vs. fiscal policy. New York: Norton. Starr, R. M. (2011). General equilibrium theory: an introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. Source document

Academic Writing Essay

My interest in International Relations and my decision to continue my education in this field is the outcome of my profound interest in Asian studies. Majoring in History of India, during my final year I became especially interested in the sphere of International Relations and Foreign Policy of India, writing my thesis on Indian Foreign Policy during Nehru’s Government and Indian-Chinese relations. Two trips to India 1997 and 1998 allowed me to become better acquainted with this country, refine my knowledge of Hindi and collect unique data for my research. This unforgettable experience convinced me that I had made the right choice of study, leading me to apply for a PhD Degree so as to extend my research in this field. I have so far completed two years of the PhD program at St. Petersburg State University. My dissertation aims at disclosing those problems which still hinder the process of normalization between the two Asian countries, India and China, reflecting on how Indian scholars perceive these issues. See more: Satirical elements in the adventure of Huckleberry Finn essay Thus my research covers both Regional Studies and field of International Relations as a global world system where these two countries play an important role. My presentation of a paper on Indo-Chinese Relations in 1980s at the international conference â€Å"East Asia – St. Petersburg – Europe: inter-civilization contacts and perspectives on economic cooperation† held in St. Petersburg a year ago gave me the opportunity to meet many outstanding researchers, including my referee, Marcia Ristaino, who encouraged me to continue my studies focusing specifically on International Relations and Regional Studies. For that reason I applied and was accepted to the MA Program in International Relations and European Studies at Central European University in Budapest with a scholarship from Soros foundation. The courses I am taking here will provide me with a sound background in theoretical issues in International Relations. The reason of why I am applying for another Master’s Degree is that the CEU program, despite its theoretical strength, has very few courses directly related to my major interest, Regional Studies and conflict resolution and peacekeeping. For this reason I would like to deepen my practical understanding of International Relations and relate it to a more focused concentration on conflict analysis and resolution through the program of the Carleton University. I am aware of the high reputation of your school and the excellent Master’s program that you offer at the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs. I believe it will certainly help me with my research and career objectives either through work in diplomatic service or at an international organization where I will be able to apply my knowledge and skills obtained through studies at your University. Courses such as Conflict Analysis, International Mediation and Conflict Resolution and International Organizations in International Affairs will be very helpful for my analyzing of the problems in the South Asian subcontinent and beyond it and will allow me to deeper understand the reasons for numerous interstate and intrastate conflicts that persist in the region. Moreover these courses will be of particular relevance to my career plans which are to find employment with UN or a similar institution in the field of conflict resolution and peacekeeping. The possibility to combine theoretical studies with practical skills in conflict analysis and resolution at the Carleton University will enable me to become a good specialist who will be able to contribute to the common cause of peace in the world. I am eager to become a professional orientalist, as I believe this field of study will always be important in the changing world where Asian countries such as India and China play significant roles in the international arena. MA at the Carleton University would be a precious experience both in terms of my academic and professional career. I hope you will give me the opportunity to realize my ambition. (A CEU Student – reproduced here with kind permission) Sample #2 Having majored in literary studies (world literature) as an undergraduate, I would now like to concentrate on English and American literature. I am especially interested in nineteenth-century literature, women’s literature, Anglo-Saxon poetry, and folklore and folk literature. My personal literary projects have involved some combination of these subjects. For the oral section of my comprehensive exams, I specialized in nineteenth century novels by and about women. The relation ship between â€Å"high† and folk literature became the subject for my honors essay, which examined Toni Morrison’s use of classical, biblical, African, and Afro-American folk tradition in her novel. I plan to work further on this essay, treating Morrison’s other novels and perhaps preparing a paper suitable for publication. In my studies toward a doctoral degree, I hope to examine more closely the relationship between high and folk literature. My junior year and private studies of Anglo-Saxon language and literature have caused me to consider the question of where the divisions between folklore, folk literature, and high literature lie. Should I attend your school, I would like to resume my studies of Anglo-Saxon poetry, with special attention to its folk elements. Writing poetry also figures prominently in my academic and professional goals. I have just begun submitting to the smaller journals with some success and am gradually building a working manuscript for a collection. The dominant theme of this collection relies on poems that draw from classical, biblical, and folk traditions, as well as everyday experience, in order to celebrate the process of giving and taking life, whether literal or figurative. My poetry draws from and influences my academic studies. Much of what I read and study finds a place in my creative work as subject. At the same time, I study the art of literature by taking part in the creative process, experimenting with the tools used by other authors in the past. In terms of a career, I see myself teaching literature, writing criticism, and going into editing or publishing poetry. Doctoral studies would be valuable to me in several ways. First, your teaching assistantship program would provide me with the practical teaching experience I am eager to acquire. Further, earning a Ph. D. in English and American literature would advance my other two career goals by adding to my skills, both critical and creative, in working with language. Ultimately, however, I see the Ph. D. as an end in itself, as well as a professional stepping-stone; I enjoy studying literature for its own sake and would like to continue my studies on the level demanded by the Ph. D. program. The following is a shortened sample SOP (with technical details removed. ) Expert comments at the end of the paragraphs point out important features. After one year’s work experience as a research technician at [redacted], one of the US’s leading research institutes, I want to return to academic study and undertake graduate studies in Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics at the University of [redacted]. Stating what you are doing now and what you are applying for is a simple, direct way of starting an SOP. After graduating with a first class degree from [redacted], University of [redacted], I felt I should gain some practical experience working in a research environment to gain first-hand knowledge of what the life of a research scientist entails. I have loved every minute of my work: especially the opportunity to participate in cutting-edge projects and discuss ideas with senior biologists. I soon realized that, although I enjoy handling the complex equipment and processing the results, I am not going to be satisfied with carrying out routine procedures under the direction of others. I want to be part of the team that directs the course of the project. My senior colleagues have encouraged my ambition and feel that I have the potential for graduate studies. Notice how the student tries to analyze the reasons for her choices. My love of biology started in high school. We had a young and enthusiastic teacher, Mrs [redacted], who took us on field trips and visits. She made sure we did as much practical work as was feasible, and demonstrated experiments that we hadn’t the equipment or time to do ourselves. She also encouraged us to read. I remember the impact reading Maynard Smith’s The Theory of Evolution had on me: I wanted to be able to explain such important ideas as clearly as he did. Quite naturally my first thoughts about a future career tended towards teaching – I wanted to be another Mrs [redacted]. It is good to explain how you became interested in your subject. However, don’t go too far back! Notice that a specific example helps create interest. At undergraduate level, my interests became more focused. Although physiology and ecology came easy to me, it was biochemistry and cell biology that really captured my interest. We were fortunate to have good laboratories and excellent professors. I found that cell biology was an interdisciplinary undertaking: today you need a foundation in chemistry, physics and even IT to be at the forefront in this subject. This interdisciplinary aspect of the subject suits my abilities well. I have always performed well in all science subjects and find it challenging to apply the knowledge to practical problems. For this reason I chose to undertake a project in my final year on the behavior of protein molecules in high energy fields at [redacted]. The scientists at [redacted] were impressed with my practical skills and were happy to give me a recommendation that led to my present job. Details of courses and projects help to show focus. (This student went on to describe another important college project. She also gave a full description of her current scientific work. ) Many people have asked me why I did not proceed directly to graduate studies after graduating. The answer is that I wanted to make sure that I had chosen the right subject and the right place before embarking on a course of study that would involve many years of my life. The one-year gap has also given me time to work with the local Natural History Society: we take families on Sunday trips to the nearby National Park to help create awareness about environmental issues. I have also been a member and organizer of the [redacted] Film Society: we watch and discuss films from all over the world. I am looking forward to furthering my interest in film in the [redacted] Film club, at your university, and I also hope to use my passion for teaching in the [redacted] Social Outreach program. Explain the reasons for any unusual features of your career (taking a year out, poor performance, etc.). Include social and extracurricular activities to show balance in your life or because they are relevant to the course. In selecting the University of [redacted] I have been influenced by the way your research program addresses biological questions at the levels of molecule, gene and cell. I am particularly looking forward to such courses as Developmental Biology and Bioinformatics. I am also excited to interact with Professors [redacted] and [redacted] whose work is closest to what I want to pursue for the original research component of the MS degree. I have been corresponding with [redacted], a current student, from whom I have learned about the collaborative environment at [redacted] where I will interact with talented students, teachers and industry professionals. I believe that I will be able to contribute to and learn from the academically challenging environment at the University of [redacted]. Statement of Purpose(SOP) Name: ***** Major: Master of Science in Computer Science(MS in Computer Science) â€Å"Time and tide wait for no man†, this we all know. Having done an inspiring four-year course in Computer Science Engineering. I would like to put to use this knowledge to do my PhD in Computer Science. This would give me the leading edge in technology and the practical low-down and the information I require. For the past few decades man is advancing in to the unknown realms of science and technology. This advancement is to make life easy and to increase human comfort at home and at work and I would like to be an integral part of such betterment. For this, research would be of prime importance with hands on experience in real time Applications accompanied by in-depth knowledge of the subject. Technology,today,means power in the widest sense of tem and merely the power of mind. And it is this power potential that has given it the status it now enjoys. Right from my childhood I had a strong inclination to be a Compute Science Engineer. My interest in the subject has grown with each passing year and it has reached where even PhD will not quench my thirst for knowledge. I have come to terms with the fact that there is an enormous proportion of subject to be assimilated. I want to take up a research oriented course for my career. A natural aptitude for mathematics, a sense of logic, analytical ability, capacity for diligent work and high academic credentials secured me a place in Shri Vishnu Engineering College for Women. The four years curriculum exposed me to the entire gamut of computer courses thus laying a strong foundation for both my Hardware and Software fundamentals. My main areas of interest were Computer Graphics and Multimedia. I enjoyed the course in Networks and Operating Systems. My interest in Graphics and Database led me to prepare eye-catching illustrations to explain the electronic models. I have developed many Software programs in C, Unix , Java. My final year project was Enterprise Resources Planning Procurement Process System, under CMC Limited, A TATA Enterprise. The project was completed in a period of 3 months using Java, J2EE as front End and Oracle as the back End. The field of application of technology is what interests me the most. I want to acquire the learning that will enable me to contribute to the development pf a new software, which can improve efficiency and accuracy of work in varied sphere. Digital Processing is already transforming the world of Communications. My ambition is to work at the forefront of the technology with the ability to find innovative solutions to the changing needs. You might ask as to why a degree from United States of America only. Since 1994 computers have been out performing automobiles in terms of units sold annually in the U. S. A. All in all computers contributed nearly 10% of United States of America GDP. The United Sates of America is way ahead of any other nation in computer technology, manufacture and sales and would thus provide me the best infrastructure and know-how currently available. Besides, it is a country where Science and Technology is a way to achieve social progress and where improving human life’s very important. All these factors coupled together make the United States of America an ideal place to pursue my further studies. The distinguished faculty and excellent facilities at your university make its graduation program ideally suited to my professional goals. Your University provides me a dynamic atmosphere, which will shape me to be a thinker and a learner. The flexibility of the curriculum will give me the broad-based education I need to widen the scope of my knowledge and skills. The diversity of the student’s body will open my mind to new influences, new ideas and new ways of doing things. The world is literally becoming a global village where opportunities for work are transcending physical space. With the Cyberspace connections, Indian knowledge workers are increasingly contributing to the global work force. The international education will give me the training and the caliber to meet the global clients. I look forward to being an active contributing member of the student community at your University. Continuous progress is the key to life. And for progress, knowledge and proper guidance are essentials. I am sure, the quality knowledge and impeccable guidance will mould me to be in the learning mode all my life opening the way for constant growth as a person and a professional STATEMENT OF PURPOSE Respected Graduate Admission Committee: My name is **** . I pursued my undergraduate studies in Computer Science and Engineering at MVSR Engineering College, Osmania University, India. I am planning to pursue my higher education and I really hope to get enrolled into the Masters program, for the term starting Spring ’08, at University of North Carolina at Charlotte. In the following paragraphs I have summarized my educational background, motivation for graduate study and my areas of interest. Starting off with my academic’s, I completed my schooling in ****, Warangal, India. My school helped me develop better in the field of science, right from the initial stages, with different techno fests, science expos and I have secured 74% marks in 10’Th standard though I secured 86% in mathematics. Then I said to myself that I am a far better performing student than these marks suggest. Hence to prove my capability to myself I worked hard with sincerity and devotion and obtained valuable marks of 83% in my Board of Intermediate at Sri Chaitanya Junior College, Hyderabad, India. At very young age as a student in high school, computer for me was only a means of entrainment as I found it exciting to play games and generating various mathematical series and patterns thorough BASIC programming. I was dumbfounded to know that games are nothing but programs. Curious to know how to program I developed a serious interest in Computers. This keen interest in mathematics along with a strong liking for computers, and particularly programming, prompted me to choose engineering with Computer Science as my major. This decision gave me ample opportunity to consolidate my creative energies and harness my technical aptitude. Early in my undergraduate study I was introduced to basic programming languages of C, C++ and Java. I understood the key features of each language and realized that one was an improvement of the other. Java being the most powerful and robust language of all fascinated me the most. My first computer science project was â€Å"Core Banking†, which performs the operations of creating an account, assigning an account number and handling transactions involving deposits and withdrawals. This program was initially written in C++ following the concepts of object-oriented programming. Later I modified the same program with some improvements like adding a GUI interface using Java. During the second year of my undergraduate studies, I had an opportunity to visit an IT company of my father’s friend. It was here that I actually saw hundreds of computers connected to each other and performing several different operations. I had many questions on my mind – â€Å"How are computers connected and if connected, how can they be managed? † Curious to know the answers and following the advice of my uncle, I read some books on Windows Networking. I was fascinated by the concepts of Domain, Active Directory, Group Policy and DNS. In the third year of my engineering studies, I was introduced to the subject of Computer Networks. Already having a sound knowledge in practical computer networking, I was at ease with this subject. During this course, I learnt the software side of networking i. e.  how to actually implement and develop different servers. The sessions in the labs were devoted in developing programs like implementation of connection-oriented and connectionless Echo Servers, concurrent multithreaded File Transfer Server and Chat Server. Currently in my fourth year, area of Distributed Systems and especially Peer-to-Peer Systems are of great interest to me. I undertook a project in Galaxie Software Solutions as an intern to design and develop a E-Care system, is an Help Desk System which can overcome some of the disadvantages of the existing software. My work in Galaxie Software Solutions gave me solid practical knowledge of many technologies and concepts such as Java, Oracle, XML, Object-Oriented Design and Programming.. I have also presented a paper entitled â€Å"Cryptography† at Parikaran 2K7 – a National level technical fest. My predominant research interests have evolved into three categories that I believe are interconnected. The three areas of interest are Computer networks, Distributed systems and Information Security. I would be very eager to work in any of these areas or interrelated areas like Networking or Distributed Systems along with Information Security. I worked as a teaching assistant for juniors in C, C++ and Oracle programming. The teaching experience has helped me to communicate articulately and interact effectively with diversity of peers. During the last two years, besides the college academics I spent most of my time attending a number of extra-curricular workshops, seminars and conferences in different fields of computer science. I look forward to a career in research where I cannot only use my academic background to achieve my research goals but also make original contributions to my field of interest. I believe that graduate studies would provide me with the opportunities to attend advanced courses and would be the stepping-stone to my career in research. University of North Carolina at Charlotte suits my research interests because of its advanced academic curriculum and world-class research groups. I believe that it is the best environment for me to achieve my goals while gaining experience and exposure to a diverse student body and faculty. I believe that no other school provides students with the combination of culture, education and research environment, required for an overall personality development, as offered by your institution. Summarizing all written above, I believe that my serious intention for study, my projects, my certifications and strong academic background in various areas of Computer Science will be beneficial for my graduate studies and research. Attending your prestigious institution would give me an opportunity to receive high-level education under the guidance of prominent professors and excellent teachers. I would regard my admission to University of North Carolina at Charlotte not only as a great honor but also as a great responsibility and challenge to prove myself. Thank you for your time and consideration. High Regards, {NAME}. While reasoning my intentions to pursue MS in Computer Science at Oklahoma State University I would like to throw some light on my career till now, I always fancied myself with Computers right from my childhood and thought of becoming a Software Engineer got implanted in my mind at an early age. A career in Engineering seemed the most challenging and logical extension of my abilities. I was given training in the basics of the operation and the applications of the computers during my school days. From that day onwards until the 10th standard I was constantly being taught different concepts of computer in different levels. The various concepts that I am thorough with, in school, are Word, QBasic and C Fundamentals. Science has been my favorable subject right from my school days and has always been one among the toppers of my class. I have even represented my school in many competitions. I have been the member of the quiz team of our school that has won many competitions. After my higher secondary I was determined to secure for myself a position in the Information Technology field, which deals with the areas of Computers, Communications and Networks. To accomplish this I had to qualify in the EAMCET Entrance Exam for Andhra Pradesh, India. I secured a good rank in the examination and secured a seat in Computer Science Engineering in V. R. Siddhartha Engineering College, Affiliated to Nagarjuna University. At VRSEC I had the good fortune of having a well-compiled syllabus, which placed equal emphasis on theoretical fundamentals as well as practical applications. Subjects such as Computer organization, Digital Logic Design, Microprocessor Applications laid a solid foundation in the theoretical aspects of the subjects. Practical application aspects were introduced to me through subjects such as Object Oriented Programming concepts, Data Structures, Relational Database Management Systems, Internet technologies. The areas, which are of special interest to me centered on Computer communications, Software Engineering, E-Commerce applications. I am interested in learning more about encryption and artificial intelligence. My interest in Networks began when I read about the various application fields it could be used, in the Information Technology magazine. I am a regular reader of magazines such as IEEE-spectrum, potentials, chip, computer networks, and computer today, which enabled me to be in touch with the latest developments in information technology. At VRSEC I had the opportunity to interact with some of the best professors in our region. I had the opportunity to do alive project in BPL Mobile Ltd. Coimbattore and project title is Mobile High Usage Roaming Alert and the project is being implemented by the company people right now and the project is done in VB and Oracle. The next step in my career towards achieving my career goal is to pursue my Masters Program in Computer Science. I have done considerable research in this area to pursue my Higher education in a reputed University and with a good course curriculum. I found about the education in USA and its recognition. I have therefore applied to the OSU in USA. Also with some advice from my college senior who are in various colleges in USA I have opted for this College. The course MS in Computer Science. The course has been designed to give me insight into the world of academic and industrial computing research. By focusing on several currently active areas it affords me the opportunity to gain an in-depth understanding of the topics of the course and in doing so, to develop the skills necessary to carry out innovative work with in the discipline of computing. I strongly believe that a software engineer should be instinctive, innovative, quick to adapt and adopt new technologies, which is only possible with solid foundation and profundity in his subjects. This entails and insightful and thorough understanding of the intricacies of the subject. That’s the reason why I am inclined towards MS in Computer Science. I am sure that with my interaction with the faculty and peers at your college will provide an ambience conducive for my transition from an undergraduate to a graduate. It is my strong belief that graduation from this institution will take me close to achieving my ultimate goal of becoming an efficient software engineer. While my sights are firmly set on graduation, it is my strong desire to pursue research program following my graduation. Computing Science plays an ever-increasing role in today’s society. Technological innovation has been one of the driving forces behind India’s rapid growth. It is therefore essential that every opportunity be afforded to talented Indian graduates to extend their education and skills in order to play an active role in managing the opportunities presented in the future. India is fast gaining a reputation for its computer industry and at the moment it is regarded as the centre for Software and as a result many of the top notch Multinational Corporations are establishing their contact centers in India. As a result an International Degree is focused to meet employment  opportunities with in the computing industry in India. Possible career opportunities for me in India include research and development roles in the development of new technologies such as software engineering, technical applications developers and consultants, network managers and other leading roles in computing industry. A fascination for Science & Technology and keen interest in the ever-growing world of technology motivated me to take up engineering. I choose to major in Electrical& Electronic Engineering with an intense urge to delve into the challenging field. During my under graduation program I learned the various fundamentals of Electrical& Electronics Engineering which together with practical course work reinforce interest. Right from my school, I had a penchant towards Mathematics, Science and research in general. This basic interest led me to take up Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry as my major subjects in high school. As a part of my Physics project, I had constructed logic gates and simple latches using basic circuit elements. I was so astounded by the Power of Electrical & Electronics. This interest made me to take Electrical& Electronic Engineering. I would like to present my past performance as my credentials for my success in my future endeavors. My innate strength has been my quantitative and analytical abilities which instilled me a special interest for mathematical and physics. I had opted the same in my 10+2 with good marks. I was placed in the top 15% of one lakh who took engineering entrance examination. This performance helped me in getting admission into Sri Saradhi Institute of Engineering, Nuzvid, India. During the course of my undergraduate study I was exposed to various courses with applications like Electromagnetic field, Control systems, Power electronic, Electrical measurements, Linear Integrated Circuits, Electronics, Pulse and digital circuits, Computer methods in power system control, Digital Signal Processing, Power systems(1to 3), Electro mechanics(1 to 3) Micro processors & Micro Controllers, High voltage engineering, Modeling of power system components, Utilization of electrical energy enhanced my subject. I secured good results in my engineering. I was well versed in programming languages like C, C++ & Java. During my final year I decided to do project in Machine cutting using micro controller. From my kinder garden my medium of instruction is English. I had written GRE and got 1060 score, which adds to my English language proficiency. Excellence in any sphere of life can be achieved trough determination, hard work, preference and dedication. Yet lack of in depth knowledge of the subject leaves the conceptual skills incomplete. It in this concept that I would like to pursue a course that control system in your esteemed university. I am very much interested to do MS Computer Science in your esteemed college. I realize the need for me to study at the center stage of activity in these fields at your college in USA. My earnest desire to continue my future studies at your graduate school stems from that it is one of the top colleges in Ireland having fine record of academic excellence and is backed up by expert faculty and research facilities. The other reason why I want to study at your esteemed college is that it provides the kind of expose needed to broaden my thinking and indo any insular prejudices that might be still prevalent in me. Your college is a confluence of people from every nationality, religion and race. Overall development of the personality can be done and it helps me to broaden my concept from the narrower confines of nationalism to internationalism. I am clear as to my carrier aspiration. Educational I believe is a life long process. I there fore wish to pursue a doctoral degree after my MS and therefore combine research and teaching as carrier. I am fully aware that yours curriculum requires that I summon all my resources and I aver that I have the necessary commitment, intelligence and stamina to look forward to do it all. I am convinced that my study at your department would be meaningful and rewarding experience. I look forward to have a long and profitable association with your esteemed college. I especially thank you for giving me the opportunity given me to express about myself. Name : ******** Program Sought: MASTERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Semester Sought: Fall 2012. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE There is a very famous adage, â€Å"If you think education is expensive, and then try ignorance†. I could not agree more. I believe research is necessary to acquire data and formulate theories, but it is just as important to know how to apply those theories and use that data in the real world. To be competent and competitive I will require a master’s degree. A master’s degree will give me the up-to-date tools and knowledge that is the need of the hour. It is after a good deal of self-evaluation that I have decided to pursue graduate studies.

Anasazi Indians Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Anasazi Indians - Essay Example Anasazi Indians practiced artwork, which was different from other tribes, hence giving them a uniqueness. For instance, they practiced pottery used for cooking or storage. The potteries were smooth and unpainted (Linda 18-19). Similarly, Anasazi Indians decorated pottery with black paints on a white background between 500 to 1300 CE (Maestri 5). They decorated their pottery using fine hatching and contrasted them using a mineral-based paint. Tall cylinders also characterize the community for ceremonial purposes. The narrow-necked jar was used for storing or drinking liquids (Linda 18-19). Additionally, this community also created pictographs and petroglyphs such as â€Å"sun dagger† that allowed sunlight to pass (Brian 35). The sitting of the dagger on the Petroglyph varied throughout the year to symbolize different positions of the sun and different seasons of the year (Brian 35). For instance, dagger-shaped light form pierces through the heart of the spiral during summer; this is an indication that it serves different purposes, and the community identified themselves with the different positions. Sun daggers also marked winter and equinoxes hence were important for the community in marking the events or the four seasons (Maestri 9). Architecture is also another aspect that defines the cultures of Anasazi since they were uniquely designed within the community spaces (Brian 35). The ancient community settlements were based on apartments-like structures made of stones and other local materials (Brian 35). The ancient towns were multi-storied building and served multipurpose as they also surrounded the open plaza; people occupied them (Brian 35). Similarly, they served the purpose of hosting cultural and civil events important for this community (Brian 35). The Anasazi Indians architectural structures marked by villages and towns acted as defense symbols because of their locations (Bureau of Land Management 6). For example, some were placed in strategic

Philosophy, Enlightenment and Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Philosophy, Enlightenment and Education - Essay Example curriculum is designed and committed to use learning as a tool to stimulate and encourage the best attainable academic progress and results for all students. However, as Aristotle argues, attaining high grades is not the only measure of successful learning. Students at the early learning stages should not be subjected to tests because moral values and character states cannot be assessed through exams. They should, rather, be encouraged to achieve character by practice before intellectual skills are taught. For every subject in each key stage, the study programmes lay out what the students must be taught while the achievement targets lay out the performance standards expected of the students. However, the performance standards do not give any provisions for students with their own views. It would not be right for students to score low marks, denoting a failure, simply because they gave their own views on their understanding of what they have been taught. The curriculum should give roo m for finding a relationship between the learners’ ideas and what is stipulated in the standards. Conversely, its rigidity may only succeed in creating a block of stereotyped knowledge, not considering the flexibility of the learners’ minds. It is only through training mental skills and giving ways of discovery that the aim of making achieving and progressive learners can be achieved. Otherwise, the curriculum is biased towards handing over instruction and thus, presupposed knowledge. It is then up to the teachers to organise their individual curricula and available technology to target individual students’ experience, interests and strengths. The aim of creating confident students, as per the curriculum, assesses confidence by the students’ ability to meet standards. However, confidence cannot be correctly judged by meeting preset standards. A display of confidence would be more accurate if students knowingly followed what they understood from the instru ctions given, rather

Negative effects of lacking innovation Assignment

Negative effects of lacking innovation - Assignment Example At the individual employee level, innovation is influenced by motivation, cognitive capabilities, personality and creativity of the individual while at the team level innovation will be determined by the team processes, the leadership style, team structure and team climate (Brown and Ulijn 2004). At the entire organizational level, the size, resources, culture, strategy and structure of the organization determines the capability of the organization to implement innovative solutions to emerging problems (Shavinina 2003). Firms that are not innovative lack the capacity to deal with the nature and intensity of competition within the market thus leading to loss in market share and profitability. Innovative firms are capable of monitoring and understanding changes in industry competitive capabilities such as new processes and new technologies thus implementing research and development activities that will enable the firm to acquire those competencies (Shavinina 2003). In this case, the firms will be using the wrong or inefficient technologies that waste raw materials and lead to high costs of production. A case example is Sony, the technology giant that lost market share and profitability due to lack of innovative technologies. Sony pioneered the Walkman and Trinitron TV and acquired Columbian pictures thus shocking Hollywood (Tabuchi, p 4). However, the rise of other Japanese rivalries made Sony lose market share and report losses since 2008 since other players like Samsung Electronics and Apple took a dvantage of technological revolution and produced digital electronic devices (Tabuchi, p 6). Although Sony had the capabilities to create the iPod before Apple, the management resisted innovation and creativity thus limiting the capability of the company to develop tablets and iPods that would enhance its music business segment (Tabuchi, p 12). It is evident that Sony did

Economist Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economist Report - Essay Example Ricardo was elected to the British parliament in 1819 as an independent representative of a borough in Ireland, Portarlington, which he served till his death in 1823. David Ricardo, lived in the times just at the beginning of the Industrial revolution and this is what perhaps influences his thinking on 'Machinery' (discussed below). Ricardo took a keen interest in the study of economics and formulated the 'Classical' system of political economy. His interest in economics was sparked by a chance reading of Adam Smith's 'The Wealth of Nations' while on vacation in 1799, in which Adam Smith focuses most of his attention on the problem of economic growth and his belief that an evolving capitalist system could benefit society as a whole. According to Smith's analysis the economy possesses unlimited upward potential. Ricardo's first written comments on economics appear to be two essays written in 1810 and 1811 (The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes) articulating his position in favour of the 'Bullionist' position. He argued in favour of a metallic currency, giving a fresh stimulus to the controversy about the policy of the Bank of England. This has since become known as the classical approach to the theory of money, which argued for the resumption of the convertibility of paper money into gold. The Bullion Committee appointed by the House of Commons in 1819 confirmed Ricardo's views and recommended the repeal of the Bank Restriction Act. Ricardo was a firm believer in Say's Law that states that there can be no demand without supply and that recession does not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. In these tracts Ricardo also suggested the impossibility of a 'general glut', or an excess supply of all goods in an economy as proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus. This provoked a debate with Malthus that culminated in Ricardo writing a series of notes on Mathus's 1820 'principles'. These notes were published posthumously as Notes on Malthus. In 1815 he published his first complete work 'Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock' where he introduced the differential theory of rent and the "law of diminishing returns" to land cultivation. He argued that raising the duties on imported grain had the effect of increasing the price of corn and hence increasing the incomes of landowners and the aristocracy at the expense of the working classes and the rising industrial class. In Essay Ricardo formulated his theory of distribution in a one-commodity ("corn") economy. With wages at their "natural" level, Ricardo argued that rate of profit and rents were determined residually in the agricultural sector. He then used the concept of arbitrage to claim that the agricultural profit and wage rates would be equal to the counterparts in industrial sectors. With this theory, he could show that a rise in wages did not lead to higher prices, but merely lowered profits. Ricardo took economics to an unprecedented degree of theoretical sophistication by formalising the 'Classical' system more clearly and consistently than anyone before had done and what became known as the "Classical" or"Ricardian" School (of thought). In

Civil Litigation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Civil Litigation - Essay Example It saves the aggrieved party of waiting for a long trial before gaining any compensation and also saves the defendant from inflated costs in case the ruling is to their disadvantage. In this case, the material facts are: 1. The motorcyclist suffered personal injuries by sustaining whiplash, a broken leg and a broken nose. 2. You do not have valid insurance to drive the car involved in the accident. 3. You have already been charged in a court of law for careless driving. It is also important to recognize that having been found guilty of careless driving, the court must have upheld one or more of the following elements of the provisions of Road Traffic Act 1988 Section 3: 1. If a person drives a mechanically propelled vehicle on a road or other public place without due care and attention, or without reasonable consideration for other persons using the road or place, he is guilty of an offence. 2. A person is to be regarded as driving without due care and attention specifically if he fa ils o exhibit competence and care. 3. In order to determine the purposes of what shall constitute subsection (2) above of what would be expected of a careful and competent driver in a particular case, regard shall be had not only to the circumstances of which he could be expected to be aware but also to any circumstances shown to have been within the knowledge of the accused. 4. Other persons must be inconvenienced by the driving of a person for that person is to be regarded as driving without reasonable consideration for other persons. Procedure for Pre-action Protocol for Personal Injury Claims. 1. Early Notification The guidelines allow for a early notification of intent to file a claim to the defendant as soon as the legal representative feel that a personal injury claim is to be pursued. In your case, the letter from Mr Donnels’ Solicitors (A& T) amounts to early notification according to the guidelines. The early notification does not necessary have to be detailed as th e costs of the claim may not be crystal clear at this stage. However, you are not under any obligation to respond to this notification as it does not start the timetable for responding. At this stage, it would be wise to explore the likelihood of having to pay any legal claims that may arise relating to the personal injuries suffered by Mr. Donells. The possibilities at this stage is that the solicitors representing Mr. Donells are in all likelihood going to pursue personal injury claims against you and therefore early preparation is essential. 2. Letter of Claim If the solicitors for Mr Daniells choose to pursue personal injury claims, the next course of action will be sending you a letter of claim. The letter of claim is usually sent to the client’s insure for cases involving road accidents. However, the facts point out that you did not to enable you drive as at the occurrence of the accident. This means that the claim will be solely directly at you and you will be responsi ble for any financial interests arising from the claims. The letter of claim provides sufficient information for the defendant to assess the liability. Usually, it will include the full details of the hospital where the claimant was treated. This information is important in its entirety to help you estimate the size of the claim. The letter of claim that may be issued should have a clear summary of facts of the accident indicating the nature of injuries

Reflective paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Reflective paper - Essay Example My view on organizational atmosphere of participation has also changed and I now see them as supportive and open to participate in community development. The concept of community has nurtured self determination and community mobilization in me. This has enabled me to gain influence and control and partners and a player in community action and decision making. By participating in community development, one can weigh on the costs involved and know if the activity is viable. With the knowledge of cost in mind, one can use it in the development of appropriate incentives. The community concept has sharpened my relation skills and I can now easily interact with members of the community which has made me have a broader knowledge of my environment. As a facilitator, I have been in a position to guide and model dialogue processes proving information when needed and intervene in case of breakdown in the process of communication. Besides, I have learnt not to be neutral and engage myself fully in processes of dialogue. Such facilitation catalyzes community participation and engagement (Butcher et.al, pp58) The community development and community practices have always been at the core of social work concept in towns. The reasons why community in social work is important are: community work aims at uniting people who were previously not organized into coalitions and effective groups that work as a group with an aim of pursuing a common social agenda, secondly, community work aims at strengthening traditional neighborhood, kinship and friendship ties and developing new structures in the society which are important for the daily operation of a society and lastly, community based activities provides the best structure that is efficient and cost effective for the service of the poor (Butcher et al, 1994) Community is very crucial in social work because the community is their objective. Social work

Psychology - Mental Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Psychology - Mental Health - Essay Example g lack of evidence that Taylor and Brown supply for their analysis, including data that correlates, but does not necessitate causation from research study on college students, incorrect assumptions about the meaning of the overly positive illusions that depressed individuals have, the overwhelming belief of depressed individuals to believe they have more control over their situation then they do, and the idea that a positive belief about the future will necessitate a positive future (Colvin and Block 1994). While all of these concepts may be see as correlated to increased positive self image, Colvin and Block suggest that while this behavior may also be typical of normal subjects, it does not compel the reader to recognize these behaviors as healthy, when current psychological practise prefers that people have a realistic self image, as apposed to a highly illusionary self image (Colvin and Block 1994). One of the primary criticisms Colvin and Block suggest is the use of the terms â€Å"balanced† and â€Å"evenhanded.† They criticise these terms, in that Taylor and Brown do not give a definition of either term, and their meaning can be ambiguous. While Taylor and Brown’s article suggests the terms to mean â€Å"a subject ascribes to self a relatively equal number of positive and negative characteristics† (Colvin and Block 1994). Colvin and Block argue that a more realistic assumption of self would be an unequal characteristic organisation, which is a more accurate portrayal of the self (Colvin and Block 1994). Looking at research, Colvin and Block make a strong argument for the need for realism, not illusion in mental health. While most people rate themselves as happier or better of then others, this is the result of overly broad questioning, which makes answers incomparable. When questions are focused on specific traits, the better than others effect is severely diminished (Dunning, Meyerowitz, & Holzberg, 1989). Also, while mentally healthy individuals

Terms comparison paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Terms comparison paper - Essay Example The subject of costs in economics is a trivial concern because as simple as it looks, costs assume many forms and applications. As conventionally defined, cost means the amount of money paid for a certain product or service. According to Encyclopedia Britannica (par. 1), cost â€Å"in common usage, (is) the monetary value of goods and services that producers and consumers purchase.† What make the concept of cost challenging in microeconomics is the diverse types or classifications attached to it. Since microeconomics encompass the study of the behavior of individuals, firms, and industries in terms of producing and consuming of economic goods and services, the concept of cost is relevant as it affects microeconomic activities of the units concerned. For consumers and individuals who are not familiar with the concepts of costs, one might have the tendency to discard this as irrelevant and immaterial. However, close examination of these underlying theories would enlighten consum ers on their effects on prices and quantities of goods which are normally offered to the public. This concept is also relevantly applicable to the health care industry. It is interesting to note that in economics, all costs are considered opportunity costs. As rationalized by Petroff (2002, par. 2), resources are usually indented for a particular purpose. When goods are produced using a definite resource, other goods could not be produced using the same raw materials. To use a practical application, for a consumer who decided to buy a television set, the opportunity cost could be the value of a trip to a nearby beach resort which was not taken due to the purchase. In health care, the concept of opportunity cost is best exemplified by the number of years in terms of lives saved and the improvement in the quality of life should monetary resources be spent on an alternative medical intervention suggested or recommended for a diagnosed health care procedure.

Psychosis Leads to Murder Essay Example for Free

Psychosis Leads to Murder Essay Throughout In Cold Blood, Truman Capote writes on the events directly before, during, and the happenings after the brutal murdering of the Clutter family in the quaint town of Holcomb, Kansas. The actions Dick Hickock and Perry Smith attracted Capote and led him to ultimately report on the entire ordeal. Throughout Capote’s masterpiece, In Cold Blood, Hickock and Smith’s deranged and psychotic actions directly correlate to a deep psychosis they both suffered for multiple years. Throughout the novel, In Cold Blood, the two murderers, Dick Hickock and Perry Smith, show instances of unwarranted anger and aggression that leads readers into believing that a serious issue with their psyches have occurred. Early in, the novel Hickock states, â€Å"I didn’t want to harm the man. I thought he was a very nice gentleman. Soft-spoken. I thought so right up to the moment I cut his throat† (Capote 88). Here, the reader can clearly see Hickock contradicting himself but in in a rather frightening way. Smith also shows an instance of this as well later in the novel when he says, â€Å"I wish she’d been in that house that night. What a sweet scene!† (Capote 259). When Smith says ‘she’ in the previous, quote he is referring to his own sister. He vocalizes that he wishes his sister was among the Clutters in their house the night he and Dick killed them. This allows the reader to truly gage the depth of his psychosis by not even allowing himself to show any compassion to his own family. In Brian Conniff’s article â€Å"Psychological Accidents: In Cold Blood and Ritual Sacrifice,† he agrees with the previous thought by stating, â€Å"Hickock was the one with the ‘sexual intrest in female children’ who wants to stop, in the middle of the burglary, to rape Nancy Clutter,† a direct quote from Smith (5). Furnished from Capote’ s personal accounts, it allows the reader to see further into the extreme violence of the convicted felons. Aside from unwarranted anger and aggression, both, Hickock and Smith show a magnitude of signs that allow outsiders to infer that they, themselves, know of their mental condition and knowingly choose to ignore it. In many instances they vocalize this to each other and even to complete strangers. Shortly after the murders Smith said, â€Å"†¦The kind of psychotic rage it took to commit such a crime† (Capote 83). And Hickock mentioned, â€Å"I think there must be something seriously wrong with us to do what we did† (Capote 108). The context of these two quotes makes it quite easy to understand why readers believe that Hickock and Smith knew of their mental issues prior to the murders but both decided to ignore them. In Conniff’s article â€Å"Psychological Accidents: In Cold Blood and Ritual Sacrifice,† he agrees with the idea above by stating a written portion of an interview with Hickock done by Capote that reads, â€Å"Like all of the rest of the ‘normals,’ as Perry calls them—‘respectable people, safe and smug people’† (3). This is yet another solid acknowledgement of his insanity, which he chooses to blatantly ignore. Throughout the entire novel, Hickock and Smith both suffer seriously from psychotic delusions and emotional rants, which forces readers to perceive Hickock and Smith as mentally insane men. During one of these rants Smith exclaims, â€Å"I WANT TO CONESS!† (Capote 100). Hickock also shows multiple instances of emotional rants also. One of many comes when his sister says she will not contact him and he, overrun by emotion, states, â€Å"I wish she’d been in that house that night. What a sweet scene!† (Capote 259). And also, â€Å"I wouldn’t give a damn if this car caught fire and burned me alive† (Capote 188). Both these quotes appear while suffering severe shifts in emotions, which he could not control, thus proving his mental instability. After authorities caught the two, and while being questioned Smith stated, â€Å"It was part passion- a passion that was pathological,† meaning that he could not control himself (Capote 186). Small indications, such as these, allow readers to see deep into the psyche of Hickock and Smith, displaying disturbing images. Throughout unwarranted acts of anger and aggression, Hickock and Smith’s acknowledgement of their insanity, and the delusions and rants they experience directly correlation between their acts of horror and the deep psychosis they became trapped in late in their lives. This psychosis directly relates to why they did the terrible things they did, and why they didn’t think anything of it. This correlation becomes easily seen by allowing the reader to glance deep within the psyche of these two ruthless killers. Works Cited Capote, Truman. In Cold Blood. New York: Random House, 1966. Print. Conniff, Brian. Psychological Accidents: In Cold Blood and Ritual Sacrifice. The Midwest Quarterly: A Journal of Contemporary Thought 35.1 (Autumn 1993): 77-94. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Thomas J. Schoenberg and Lawrence J. Trudeau. Vol. 164. Detroit: Gale, 2005. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. 8 Nov. 2011.

What Are The Concepts Of Thermochemistry Environmental Sciences Essay

What Are The Concepts Of Thermochemistry Environmental Sciences Essay The beginnings of modern thermochemistry, though made independently of the doctrine of the conservation of energy, are practically contemporaneous with the recognition of that law, and without it the science could scarcely have reached the degree of development which it rapidly attained. Thomas Andrew and, especially Hess were the first who systematically investigated thermochemical effects in solution, and arrived at conclusions from their experimental data which still possess validity. Andrews, for example, found that when a series of acids were under similar conditions used to neutralize a given amount of a base, the quantity of heat evolved on the neutralization was the same in all cases. Hess, from his work, arrived at the converse conclusion, that when a series of bases were used to neutralize a given amount of an acid, the heat of neutralization was always the same. Both of these statements are correct when the powerful mineral acid and bases are considered, exceptions only ar ising when weak acids and bases are employed. Again, Andrews discovered that when one metal displaces another from solution of its salts (e.g. zinc with solutions of copper salts), the thermal effect is practically independent of the nature of the acid radical in the salt employed. Andrews likewise found that when the heat evolved on. the displacement from its salts of a metal M by a metal M is added to the heat of displacement of another metal M by M, the sum is equal to the heat which is evolved on the direct displacement of M from its salts by M. This affords an example of a principle which had been stated by Hess in a very general form under the name of the Law of Constant Heat Sums namely, that the thermal effect of a given chemical action is the same, independently of the character and number of the stages in which it takes place. Thus, in the above example, it is immaterial whether M displaces M from its salt directly, or whether M first displaces M, which is then used to di splace M. This important principle is a direct consequence of the law of the conservation of energy, but was discovered independently by Hess from accurate experiment. Oxidation of Zn to ZnO . . 5291 units à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ S to SO 3 . 6384 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Dissolution of SO 3 in much water. .. . . 2566 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ ZnO in the resulting aqueous H2S04. 1609 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ 1585 o à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Deduct heat of dissolution of anhydrous ZnSO 4 . . 11 93 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Heat of formation of ZnSO 4 from Zn, S, and 40 = 14657 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Hess employed this principle to determine indirectly the heat of formation of compounds from their elements, when this magnitude, as is generally the case, was inaccessible to direct measurement. Thus the heat of formation of anhydrous zinc sulphate, ZnSO 4j which cannot be determined directly, may be arrived at by summation (in Hesss units) as follows: Heats of formation are still determined for the most part in a precisely similar manner. Hess also stated another principle on empirical grounds, which, although admitting of many exceptions, is of considerable utility and significance. It had been known long before his time that when solutions of neutral salts were mixed, and no precipitate resulted, the mixed solution was also neutral. Hess now observed that in the process of mixing such neutral solutions no thermal effect was produced that is, neutral salts in aqueous solution could apparently interchange their radicals without evolution or absorption of heat. These experimental results were generalized by him under the title of the Law of Thermoneutrality. After the investigations of Hess and Andrews, a great deal of excellent experimental work was performed by P. A. Favre and J. T. Silbermann, whose chief theoretical achievement was the recognition that the heat of neutralization of acids and bases was additively composed of two constants, one determined by the acid and the other by the base. This dedction harmoniz ed the observations of Andrews and of Hess previously alluded to, and also accounted satisfactorily for the Law of Thermoneutrality. Julius Thomson was the first investigator who deliberately adopted the principle of the conservation of energy as the basis of a thermochemical system. His thermochemical work was begun in 1853, but most of his experiments were performed in the years 1869-82, the whole being published collectively, under the title Thermochemische Untersuchungen, in four volumes. Somewhat later than Thomson, Marcellin P. E. Berthelot began (in 1873) a long series of thermochemical determinations. It is to these two investigators and their pupils that most of our exact thermochemical data are due. Thomsen and Berthelot independently enunciated a generalization (commonly known as Berthelots Third Principle, or Principle of Maximum Work), which may be stated in brief as follows: Every pure chemical reaction is accompanied by evolution of heat. Whilst this principle is undoubtedly applicable to the great majority of chemical actions under ordinary conditions, it is subject to numerous exceptions, and cannot therefore be taken (as its authors originally intended) as a secure basis for theoretical reasoning on the connexion between thermal effect and chemical affinity HEAT IN THERMOCHEMISTRY . The existence of reactions which are reversible on slight alteration of conditions at once invalidates the principle, for if the action proceeding in one direction evolves heat, it must absorb heat when proceeding in the reverse direction. As the principle was abandoned even by its authors, it is now only of historical importance, although for many years it exerted considerable influence on thermochemical research. 2. From the standpoint of the law of conservation of energy, the relation between chemical and thermochemical action bears the following aspect: A given amount of any substance under given conditions possesses a perfectly definite amount of intrinsic energy, and, no matter what chemical and physical transformations the substance may undergo, it will, when it returns to its original state, possess the original amount of intrinsic energy. If we consider now the transformation of one system of chemical substances into another system under specified conditions, we shall find that in general the intrinsic energy of the second system is different from the intrinsic energy of the first. Let us assume, as is commonly the case, that the intrinsic energy of the initial system is greater than that of the final system. When the first system then is transformed into the second, the excess of energy which the former possesses must appear in the shape of heat, light, electrical energy, mechanical energy, c. It is for the most part a simple matter to obtain the excess of energy entirely in the form of heat, the amount of which is easily susceptible of measurement, and thus the existence of thermochemistry as a practical science is rendered possible. Since the intrinsic energies of the two systems under given conditions are invariable, the difference between them is constant, so that the heat evolved when the first system is converted into the second is equal to that absorbed when the second system is re-transformed into the first (cf. Lavoisier and Laplace, ante, 1). The total thermal effect, too, which is associated with the transformation, must be the same, whether the transformation is conducted directly or indirectly (Hesss Law of Constant Heat Sums), since the thermal effect depends only on the intrinsic energies of the initial and final systems. Since the intrinsic energy of a substance varies with the conditions under which the substance exists, it is necessary, before proceeding to the practical application of any of the laws mentioned above, accurately to specify the conditions of the initial and final systems, or at least to secure that they shall not vary in the operations considered. It is also a necessary condition for the application of the preceding laws that no form of energy except heat and the intrinsic energy of the substances should be ultimately involved. For example, when metallic zinc is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid with production of zinc sulphate (in solution) and hydrogen gas, a definite quantity of heat is produced for a given amount of zinc dissolved, provided that the excess of energy in the initial system appears entirely as heat. This provision may not always be fulfilled, since by placing the zinc in electrical contact with a piece of platinum, likewise immersed in the sulphuric acid, we can g enerate a current of electricity through the solution and the metallic part of the circuit. The reaction as before is completely expressed by the chemical equation Zn+H2S04 =ZnSO 4 H+ 2, the initial and final systems being exactly the same as in the first case; yet the amount of heat generated by the action is much smaller, a quantity of the intrinsic energy having been converted into electrical energy. This electrical energy, however, is equivalent to the heat which has disappeared, for it has been shown experimentally that if it is converted into heat and added to the heat actually evolved, the total quantity of heat obtained is exactly equal to that produced by the direct dissolution of the zinc in the absence of platinum. 3. The following conditions have to be considered as affecting in a greater or less degree the intrinsic energy of the initial and final systems: (1) Dilution of solutions. (2) Physical state. (3) Change of volume. (4) Allotropic modifications. (5) Temperature. (i) Generally speaking, there is a considerable thermal effect when a substance is dissolved in water, and this effect varies in magnitude according to the amount of water employed. It is only, however, when we deal with comparatively concentrated solutions that the heat-effect of diluting the solutions is at all great, the heat-change on diluting an already dilute solution being for most practical purposes negligible. In dealing, therefore, with dilute solutions, it is only necessary to state that the solutions are dilute, the exact degree of dilution being unimportant. It occasionally happens that a change in dilution affects the chemical action that occurs. Thus if concentrated instead of dilute sulphuric acid acts upon zinc, the action takes place to a great extent not according to the equation given above, but according to the equation Zn +2H 2 SO 4 = ZnS04+S02+2 H20, sulphur dioxide and water being produced instead of hydrogen. Here we have a different final system with a diffe rent amount of intrinsic energy, so that the thermal effect of the action is altogether different. (2) The physical state of the reacting substances must be considered, since comparatively large amounts of heat are absorbed on fusion and on vaporization . Thus the heat of fusion of ice(for H 2 O=18 g) is 1440 cal., and the heat of vaporization of water at 100 °, for the same quantity, 9670 cal. (3) The effect of change of volume against external pressure (due to production or consumpion of mechanical energy) may be neglected in the case of solids, liquids or solutions, but must usually be taken into account when gases are dealt with. Each grammemolecule of a gas which appears under constant pressure during a chemical action (e.g. hydrogen during the action of zinc on dilute sulphuric acid) performs work equivalent to 580 cal. at the ordinary temperature, which must be allowed for in the thermochemical calculation. A similar correction, of opposite sign, must be made when a gramme-molecule of gas disappears during the chemical action. (4) When a substance e.g. carbon, phosphorus , sulphur exists in allotropic forms, the particular variety employed should always be stated, as the conversion of one modification into another is frequently attended by a considerable thermal effect. Thus the conversion of yellow into red phosphorus evolves about one-sixth of the heat of combustion of the latter in oxygen, and so the knowledge of which variety of phosphorus has been employed is of essential importance in the thermochemistry of that element. (5) The influence of temperature on the thermal effect of a chemical action is sometimes considerable, but. since the initial and final temperatures, which alone determine the variation in the thermal effect, are in almost all cases within the ordinary laboratory range of a few degrees, this influence may in general be neglected without serious error. 4. Methods. In order to estimate the thermal effect of any chemical process, use is made of the ordinary methods of calorimetry, the particular method being selected according to the nature of the chemical action involved. In almost every case the method of mixture (see Calomitry) is employed, the method of fusion with Bunsens ice-calorimeter being only used in special and rarely occurring circumstances. As a very great number of important chemical actions take place on mixing solutions, the method for such cases has been thoroughly studied. When the solutions employed are dilute, no water is placed in the calorimeter, the temperature-change of the solutions themselves being used to estimate the thermal effect brought about by mixing them. Known quantities of the solutions are taken, and the temperature of each is accurately measured before mixing, the solutions having been allowed as far as possible to adjust themselves to the same temperature. The change of temperature of the solutions after the mixing has taken place is then observed with the usual precautions. It is of course in such a case necessary to know the specific heat of the liquid in the calorimeter. Thomsen by direct experiment found that the heat-capacity of a dilute aqueous solution diverged in general less than i per cent. from the heat-capacity of the water contained in it, the divergence being sometimes in one sens e, sometimes in the other. He therefore abstained from determining for each case the specific heats of the solutions he employed, and contented himself with the above approximation. Berthelot, on the other hand, assumed that the heat-capacity of an aqueous solution is equal to that of an equal volume of water, and calculated his results on this assumption, which involves much the same uncertainty as that of Thomsen. Since thermochemical measurements of this type may be frequently performed with an error due to other causes of much less than i per cent., the error introduced by either of these assumptions is the chief cause of uncertainty in the method. The calorimeter used for solutions is usually cylindrical, and made of glass or a metal which is not, attacked by the reacting substances. The total quantity of liquid employed need not in general exceed half a litre if a sufficiently delicate thermometer is available. The same type of calorimeter is used in determining the heat of solution of a solid or liquid in water. Combustion calorimeters are employed for observing the heat generated by the brisk interaction of substances, one of which at least is gaseous. They are of two kinds. In the older type the combustion chamber (of metal or glass) is sunk in the calorimeter proper, tubes being provided for the entrance and exit of the gaseous substances involved in the action. These tubes are generally in the form of immersed in the water of the calorimeter. In the newer type (which was first proposed by Andrews for the combustion of gases) the chemical action takes place in a completely closed combustion chamber of sufficient strength to resist the pressure generated by the sudden action, which is often of explosive violence. The steel combustion chamber is of about 250 c.c. capacity, and is wholly immersed in the calorimeter. To withstand the chemical action of the gases, the calorimetric bomb is lined either with platinum, as in Berthelots apparatus, or with porcelation, as in Mahlers. For ordinary combustions compressed oxygen is used, so that the combustible substance burns almost instantaneously, the action being induced by means of some electrical device which can be controlled from without the calorimeter. The accuracy of heats of combustion determined in the closed calorimeter is in favourable cases about one-half per cent. of the quantity estimated. 5. Units and Notation in thermochemistry The heat-units employed in thermochemistry have varied from time to time. The following are those which have been in most general use: Small calorie or gramme calorie. cal. Large or kilogramme calorie. Cal. Centuple or rational calorie. K. The centuple calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g. of water from o ° C. to C., and is approximately equal to ioo cal. The large calorie is equal to 1000 cal. In view of the not very great accuracy of thermochemical measurements, the precise definition of the heat-unit employed is not a matter of special importance. It has been proposed to adopt the joule, with the symbol j, as thermochemical unit for small quantities of heat, large amounts being expressed in terms of the kilojoule, Kj =100o j. (For the exact relation between these heat-units, see Calorimetry.) For ordinary thermochemical work we may adopt the relation 1 cal. = 4.18 j, or 1 Cal. = 4.18 Kj. Except for technological purposes, thermochemical data are not referred to unit quantity of matter, but to chemical quantities i.e. to the gramme-equivalents or gramme-molecules of the reacting substances, or to some multiples of them. The notation which Julius Thomsen employed to express his thermochemical measurements is still extensively used, and is as follows: The chemical symbols of the reacting substances are written in juxtaposition and separated by commas; the whole is then enclosed in brackets and connected by the sign of equality to the number expressing the thermal effect of the action. The chemical symbols stand for quantities measured in grammes, and heat-evolution is reckoned as positive, heat-absorption as negative. Thus [S, 20] =71100 cal. indicates that 71100 calories are evolved when 32 grammes of sulphur react with 2 X 16 grammes of free oxygen to form sulphur dioxide. It is of course necessary in accurate work to state the conditions of the reaction. In the above instance the sulphur is supposed to be in the solid rhombic modification, the oxygen and sulphur dioxide being in the gaseous state, and the initial and final systems being at the ordinary temperature. Again, the equation [2N, 0] =-18500 cal. indicates that if 28 grammes of nitrogen could be made to unite directly with 16 grammes of oxygen to form nitrous oxide, the union would cause the absorption of 18500 calories. When substances in solution are dealt with, Thomsen indicates their state by affixing Aq to their symbols. Thus [NaOH Aq, HNO 3 Aq] =13680 cal. represents the heat of neutralization of one gramme-equivalent of caustic soda with nitric acid, each in dilute aqueous solution before being brought into contact. One draw back of Thomsens notation is that the nature of the final system is not indicated, although this defect in general causes no ambiguity. Berthelots notation defines both initial and final systems by giving the chemical equation for the reaction considered, the thermal effect being appended, and the state of the various substances being affixed to their formulae after brackets. W. Ostwald has proposed a modification of Berthelots method which has many advantages, and is now commonly in use. Like Berthelot, he writes the chemical equation of the reaction, but in addition he considers the chemical formula of each substance to express not only its material composition, but also the (unknown) value of its intrinsic energy. To the right-hand member of the equation he then adds the number expressing the thermal effect of the reaction, heat-evolution being as before counted positive, and heat-absorption negative. The mass-equation then becomes an energy-equation. He thus writes S+02=S02+7110o cal., which expresses the fact that the intrinsic energy of the quantities of sulphur and oxygen considered exceeds that of the sulphur dioxide derived from them by 71100 cal. when thermal units are employed. The equation H2+12=2HI-12200 cal. expresses that under certain conditions the intrinsic energy of hydriodic acid is greater than the intrinsic energy of its component elements by 12200 cal., i.e. that hydriodic acid is formed from its elements with absorption of this amount of heat. Energyequations, such as the above, may be operated with precisely as if they were algebraic equations, a property which is of great advantage in calculation. Thus by transposition we may write the last equation as follows 2HI =H2+12+12200 cal., and thus express that hydriodic acid when decomposed into its elements evolves 12200 cal. for the quantity indicated by the equation. Ostwald has made the further proposal that the formulae of solids should be printed in heavy type (or within square brackets), of liquids (solutions, c.) in ordinary type, and of gases in italics (or within curved brackets), so that the physical state the substances might be indicated by the equation itself. Thus the equation Cl 2 -1-2KI, Aq=2KC1, Aq+12+52400 cal., or (C12) +2KI, Aq =2KC1, Aq+[12]-I-52400 cal., would express that when gaseous chlorine acts on a solution of potassium iodide, with separation of solid iodine, 52400 calories are evolved. 6. Heat of Formation. For thermochemical calculations it is of great importance to know the heat of formation of compounds from their elements, even when the combination cannot be brought about directly. As an example of the use of Ostwalds energy-equations for the indirect determination we may take the case of carbon monoxide. The following equations give the result of direct experiment  :- C +20 = CO 2+943 oo cal. CO+ O=CO 2 +68000 cal. If now it is required to find the heat of formation of the compound CO, which cannot be directly ascertained, we have merely to subtract the second equation from the first, each symbol representing constant intrinsic energy, and thus we obtain C+0 00= 26300 cal., or C+0=C0+26300 cal., that is, the heat of formation of a gramme-molecule of carbon monoxide is 26300 cal. As has already been stated, the heat of formation of a compound is the amount (expressed in thermal units) by which its intrinsic energy exceeds or falls short of that of the elements which enter into its composition. Now of the absolute values of intrinsic energy we know nothing; we can only estimate differences of intrinsic energy when one system is compared with another into which it may be directly or indirectly converted. But since the elements cannot be converted one into the other, we are absolutely without knowledge of the relative values of their intrinsic energy. This being the case, we are at liberty to make the assumption that the intrinsic energy of each element (under specified conditions) is zero, without thereby introducing any risk of self-contradiction in thermochemical calculations. This assumption has the great advantage, that the intrinsic energy of a compound relatively to its elements now appears as the heat of formation of the compound with its sign reversed. Thus if we consider the energyequation C +02 = CO 2+943 00 cal., and replace the symbols by the values of the intrinsic energy, viz. zero for carbon and oxygen, and x for carbon dioxide, we obtain the equation o+o=x+94300 cal. or x = 94300 cal. With knowledge then of the heats of formation of the substances involved in any chemical action, we can at once calculate the thermal effect of the action, by placing for each compound in the energy-equation its heat of formation with the sign reversed, i.e. its heat of decomposition into its elements. Thus if we wish to ascertain the thermal effect of the action Mg+CaO =MgO+Ca, we may write, knowing the heats of formation of CaO and Mg0 to be 131000 and 146000 respectively, 0-131000 = 0-146000+x x =15000 cal. Since heats of formation afford such convenient data for calculation on the above method, they have been ascertained for as many compounds as possible. Substances with positive heats of formation are termed exothermic; those with negative heats of formation are termed endothermic. The latter, which are not very numerous, give out heat on decomposition into their elements, and are more or less unstable. Amongst endothermic compounds may be noted hydriodic acid, HI, acetylene, C 2 H 2, nitrous oxide, N 2 O, nitric oxide, NO, azoimide, N 3 H, nitrogen trichloride, NC1 3. Some of these pass into their elements with explosive violence, owing to the heat generated by their decomposition and the gaseous nature of the products. 7. Heat of Combustion The thermochemical magnitude which is universally determined for organic compounds is the heat of combustion, usually by means of the calorimetric bomb. The relation between the heat of combustion of a hydrocarbon and its heat of formation may be readily seen from the following example. The hydrocarbon methane, CH 4, when completely burned to carbon dioxide and water, generates 213800 cal. We may therefore write CH 4 +40 = C02+2H20+213800. Now we know the heats of formation of carbon dioxide (from diamond) and of liquid water to be 94300 cal. and 68300 cal. respectively. The above equation may consequently be written, if x is the heat of formation of methane, -x+0 = -94300-(2 X 68300) +213800 x =17000 cal. This heat of formation, like that of most hydrocarbons, is comparatively small: the heat of formation of saturated hydrocarbons is always positive, but the heat of formation of unsaturated hydrocarbons is frequently negative. or example, ethylene, C2H4 j is formed with absorption of 16200 cal., acetylene, C 2 H 2, with absorption of 59100 cal., and liquid benzene, C 6 H 6, with absorption of 9100 cal. Since the heat of combustion of a hydrocarbon is equal to the heat of combustion of the carbon and hydrogen it contains minus its heat of formation, those hydrocarbons with positive heat of formation generate less heat on burning than the elements from which they were formed, whilst those with a negative heat of formation generate more. Thus the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene, C 2 H 2, is 316000 cal., whereas the heat of combustion of the carbon and hydrogen composing it is only 256900 cal., the difference being equal to the negative heat of formation of the acetylene. For substances consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, a rule was early devised for the purpose of roughly calculating their heat of combustion (J. J. Welters rule). The oxygen contained in the compound was deducted, together with the equivalent amount of hydrogen, and the heat of combustion of the compound was then taken to be equal to the heats of combustion of the elements in the residue. That the rule is not very accurate may be seen from the following example. Cane-sugar has the formula C12H22011. According to Welters rule, we deduct II 0 with the equivalent amount of hydrogen, namely, 22 H, and are left with the residue 12 C, the heat of combustion of which is 1131600 cal. The observed heat of combustion of sugar is, however, 1354000, so that the error of the rule is here 20 per cent. A much better approximation to the heat of combustion of such substances is obtained by deducting the oxygen together with the amount of carbon necessary to form C02, and then ascertaining the amount of heat produced by the residual carbon and hydrogen. In the above case we should deduct with II 0 the equivalent amount of carbon 5.5 C, thus obtaining the residue 6.5 C and 22 H. These when burnt would yield (6.5 X9430o)+(II X68300) =1364250 cal., an amount which is less than 1 per cent. different from the observed heat of combustion of sugar. Neither of the above rules can be applied to carbon compounds containing nitrogen 8. Heat of Neutralization It has already been stated that the heats of neutralization of acids and bases in aqueous solution are additively composed of two terms, one being constant for a given base, the other constant for a given acid. In addition to this, the further regularity has been observed that when the powerful monobasic acids are neutralized by the powerful monacid bases, the heat of neutralization is in all cases the same. The following table gives the heats of neutralization of the commoner strong monobasic acids with soda: Hydrobromic acid Hydriodic acid Nitric acid Chloric acid Bromic acid Within the error of experiment these numbers are identical. It was at one time thought that the greater the heat of neutralization of an acid with a given base, the greater was the strength of the acid. It is now known, however, that when weak acids or bases are used, the heat of neutralization may be either greater or less than the normal value for powerful acids and bases, so that there is no proportionality, or even parallelism, between the strengths of acids and their heats of neutralization . sodium carbonate- Na 2 CO 3.. . Na 2 CO 3, H 2 O . Heat of Solution. +5640 cal. +2250 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Heat of Hydration. +339 0 cal. Na 2 CO 3, 2H 2 0 . +20 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +5620 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Na 2 CO 3, IoH 2 O . 16160 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +21800 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ II. Sodium sulphate- Na 2 SO 4 +460 cal. Na 2 SO 4, H 2 O . 1900 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +2360 cal. Na2S04, IoH 2 O . 18760 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +19200 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ 9. Heat of Solution When substances readily combine with water to form hydrates, the heat of solution in water is usually positive; when, on the other hand, they do not readily form hydrates, or when they are already hydrated, the heat of solution is usually negative. The following examples show the effect of hydration on heat of solution in a large quantity of water: io. Application of the Second Law thermodynamics to Thermochemistry. What is commonly understood by thermochemistry is based entirely on the first law of thermodynamics, but of recent years great progress has been made in the study of chemical equillibrium by the application of the second law. For an account of work in this direction see Chemical action. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Julius Thomsen, Thermochemische Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1882-86); M. Berthelot, Essai de Mecanique Chimique fondee sur la Thermochimie (Paris, 1879); Thermochimie, donnees et lois numeriques (Paris, 1897); W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, 2nd ed., vol. ii. part I, pp. 1-517 (Leipzig, 1893); M. M. P. Muir and D. M. Wilson, Elements of Thechemistry (London, 1885); P. Duhem, Traite de Mecanique Chimique (Paris, 18 97-99); J. J. van Laar, Lehrbuch der mathematischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1901). (J. WAL.)

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment Urinary tract is the most common organ to experience infection which occurs from neonates to geriatrics. It account for 8.3 million doctor visit each year and represent the second most common infection in the human body (Sumaira Zareef et al.,2009). By the advancement of age, the attack of UTI increases in men due to prostate enlargement and neurogenic bladder. Recurrent infections are common and will lead to irreversible damage of the kidneys, which result in renal hypertension and renal failure in severe cases. In community, women are more prone to develop UTI and 20% of women experience a single episode of UTI during their lifetime and 3% of women may have more than one episode of UTI per year. Pregnancy also makes them more sensitive to infection. Catheter-associated UTI is a trenchant problem and bacteriuria is found in 5% of catheterised patients (Das R N et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection refers to the presence of microbes in the urinary tract. The frequency of pathogens v aries upon hospitalization, sexual intercourse, and catheterization (Getenet B et al., 2011). About 150 million people are diagnosed for having urinary tract infection with a very high risk of morbidity and mortality (Raza S et al., 2011). Urinary tract infection is found more in women when compared with men the reason may be due to anatomical structure or because of the urothelial mucosa attachment to the muco polysaccharide lining or due to other factors (Tampekar et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection is second only to respiratory tract in acquiring microbial infections (Raza S et al., 2011). Classification of Urinary Tract Infection: Urinary tract infection may be classified as upper urinary tract infection and lower urinary tract infection. According to the infected site, if its bladder then its called cystitis, if the bacterium is in the kidney then its called pyelonephrites, if its in urine the term bacteriuria is used (Getenet B et al., 2011). Manifestation of genitourinary tract infection vary from mild symptomatic cystitis to pyelonephrites and finally to septicaemia. Pyelonephrites are the sequelae of untreated or inadequately treated lower UTI and the most common cause of hospital admission during pregnancy and which lead to preterm labour(Jamie et al .,2002). Urinary tract infections are further divided into complicated and uncomplicated infections. Uncomplicated infections are those with no prior instrumentations and complicated infections are those that have done instrumentations such as indwelling, urethral catheters and it include structural and functional abnormalities (Getnet B et al., 2011). Again UTI is classified as community acquired and hospital acquired (nosocomial). In community acquired UTI single species of bacteria is found and the organisms are Escherichia coli, P.mirabilis, Pseudomonas. Hospital acquired UTI is often due to multi drug resistant strain in this similar organism but greater preponderance of Streptococci or Klebsiella is seen (Sujit K Chaudhuri., 2001). Defnition of the precise terms in Urinary Tract Infection: Significant bacteriuria It is defined as the presence of 100000 bacteria per mL of urine. Asymptomatic bacteriuria It is defined as significant bacteriuria in infected patients with the absence of symptoms Cystitis It is defined as a syndrome of frequency, dysuria, urgency in which the infection is limited to bladder and urethra. Urethral syndrome In Urethral syndrome a conventional pathogen is present and its a syndrome of dysuria, frequency in the absence of significant bacteriuria. Acute pyelonephrites It is an acute infection in one or both the kidneys. Chronic pyelonephrites It may be due to the continuous excretion of bacteria from kidney or the recurring infection of the renal cell or due to a specific pathology of both kidneys. Relapse and reinfection Relapse is defined has the recurrence of infection by the same organism which intiated original infection. Reinfection is defined as the recurrence of infection by a new organism (Roger walker et al., 2003). Several studies have demonstrated geographical variability of Pathogens occurrence among UTI inpatient and outpatient is limited by the predominance of gram negative organisms. The most frequent pathogen isolated is Escherichia coli which accounts for about 50% to 90% of all uncomplicated infections (Tampekar et al., 2006). In complicated urinary tract infection and hospitalized patients, organisms such as Enterococcus faecalis and highly resistant gram negative rods including Pseudomonas are most common (Getenet B et al., 2011). Aetiology and microbiology: The most common causative organism of uncomplicated UTI is Escherichia coli accounting more than 85% cases, followed by staphylococcus saprophyticus (coagulase-negative staphylococcus) accounting to nearly 15%. The pathogens in complicated UTI or nosocomical infections are Escherichia coli accounting 50%, Proteus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococci and Enterococci (Barbara et al., 2008). A very rare cause of urinary tract infection includes anaerobic bacteria and fungi and sometimes viruses which are detected by culture and nucleic acid amplification method. Abnormalities of the urinary tract such congenital anomalies of ureter, renal stones, enlargement of prostrate in men are other causes for urinary tract infection (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pathophysiology of UTI: (Barbara et al., 2008) The urinary tract includes two pairs of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection are defined as infections at any level of the urinary tract which include, Upper urinary tract infection (Pyelonephrites) Lower urinary tract infection ( Cystitis, Urethritis) Combination of above two The bacteria causing UTIs originate from bowel flora of the host. It can be acquired via three possible routes Ascending Haematogenous Lymphatic pathways In females the short length of the urethra and proximity to the perirectal area lead to the colonization of bacteria. The organisms enter the bladder from urethra and multiply and can ascend the ureters and ascend to the kidneys. Factors that determine the development of urinary tract infections are The size of the inoculums Virulence of the microorganisms Competency of the natural host defense mechanisms. Important virulence factors of bacteria are their ability to adhere to urinary epithelial cells by fimbriae. Others include haemolysin, a cytotoxic protein produced by bacteria which lyses a large range of cells including erythrocytes, monocytes, and polymorph nuclear leukocytes. Clinical presentation: Pain or burning when you using bathroom Fever, tiredness or shakiness An urge to use the bathroom often and often Pressure in the lower belly Urine that smells bad and looks cloudy or reddish Nausea or back pain Lower urinary tract infection Dysuria, urgency, nocturia, Increased frequency of urination Upper urinary tract infection Fever, flank pain, vomiting malaise. Clinical investigation: (Roger walker et al., 2003) Laboratory diagnosis is successful when an uncontaminated urine sample is obtained for microscopy and culture. The respective patients need to instruct to produce mid stream urine sample (MSU) and then its collected into a sterile aliquot and then transferred into the specimen pot and finally is submitted to the laboratory. Dipsticks It is a rapid testing for urinary blood, nitrites, proteins and leukocyte esterase. The colour changes are assessed. Microscopy It is the first step in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. Urine is placed on a slide and then covered with a cover slip and is examined under lens 40x. Culture The patients urine is streaked in agar medium and is incubated for 24 hours at 370C and identify the single bacterial species which as initiated the particular infection. Treatment of UTI: Non specific treatment Urinary tract infected patients are advised to drink a lot of fluids, this practice is on the basis that the bacteria is removed by frequent bladder emptying. Urinary analgesics such sodium citrate which will alkanize urine is used with antibiotics as an adjunct therapy (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pharmacological treatment of UTI Antibiotics are commonly used in Urinary tract infections. The modes of action of antibiotics may be, Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibition of Cytoplasmic Membrane Function Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Control of Microbial Enzymes Substrate Competition with an Essential Metabolite (Barar F. S. K., 2007) UTI are mainly treated with broad spectrum Cephalosporins, Fluroquinolones, and Aminoglycosides. Cephalosporins are cell wall inhibitors which are commonly used for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram negative organisms. It include Cefotaxime, Cephradine, Ceftazidime etc. Flouroquinolones act by inhibiting the activity of DNA gyrase and topo isomerase which are the enzymes needed for bacterial DNA replication and it includes Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Enoxacin. Aminoglycoside act by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis it include Gentamycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin etc (Farhat Ullah et al., 2009). Oral therapy in urinary tract infection is Sulphonamides example (TMP-SMX) PenicillinS which include Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- clavulanic acid. Cephalosporins example Cephalexin, Cephadrine. Tetracyclines example Doxycycline, Minocycline. Fluroquinolones example Levofloxacin, Nitrofurantine. Parentral therapy is done with Carbapenems example Imipenem-Cilastatin. Aminglycosides example Amikacin, Gentamycin (Barbara et al., 2008). 2.9 Treatments of infections of urinary tract: (S.D Seth et al., 1999) Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Infections Single-dose Trimethoprim -Sulphamethoxazole (400mg+2g) are used to treat acute uncomplicated episode of cystitis. Acute urethritis can be treated with Doxycycline 100 mg twice a day for 7 days. Single dose therapy must be restricted in patients where symptoms are present for less than 10 days. In more complicated cases seven days therapy with antibiotics should be given and alternatively broader spectrum antibiotics are used. Treatment of upper Urinary Tract Infections 10-14 day course of Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole, Trimethoprim in a single dose, Cephalosporins, or Aminoglycoside gives adequate therapy. If recurrence occurs then the patient should be investigated for calculi and other urologic disease. Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections during Pregnancy Acute cystitis during pregnancy is treated with Amoxicillin, Nitrofurantoin,or Cephalosporin for 4 days. Acute pyelonephtites is managed generally with Cephalosporin or extended spectrum Penicillin. Treatment for Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections In this a drug capable of achieving high tissue concentration is needed.7-14 days high treatment is given. Treatment of Asymptomatic Infections Asymptomatic bacteriuria is confirmed by a minimum of two positive cultures. An oral therapy for 1 week with the most sensitive agent is given primarly. Treatment for Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infection Asymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized patients is not treated if they are not at a high risk of sepsis. Treatment for Prostatitis The pathogen found in this is mainly Gram Negative Bacilli. Trimethoprim- Sulphamethoxazole, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin can penetrate prosthetic tissue and are mostly effective. If Cocci are found cloxacillin may be given. Chemoprophylaxis of Urinary Tract Infections It is indicated to patients with a very frequent symptomatic infection. A single dose Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole (80mg TMP+400 mg SMZ) or Nitrofurantoin (50 mg) is found to be effective. Drug resistance: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Barar F.S.K 2010). Bacteria are said to be resistant to an antibiotic if the maximal level of that antibiotic which can be tolerated by the host does not alter the bacterial growth. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics may be either Natural or Acquired. Natural resistance Natural resistance is genetically determined and it depends upon the absence of a metabolic process which is affected by the respective bacteria. Acquired resistance Acquired resistance is the resistance which is seen in a previously sensitive bacterial pathogen and it involves a very stable genetic change which is heritable from one generation to another generation. The common mechanism is by mutation, adaptation, or by the development of multiple drug resistance which is as a result of transfer of genetic material from bacteria to bacteria by transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Microbial species which are normally responsive to a particular drug may develop more virulent, resistant strains due to, Genetic alterations Spontaneous mutations of DNA DNA transfer of drug resistance B) Altered expression of proteins in organism Modification of target site Decreased accumulation Enzymtic Inactivation A) Genetic alterations Acquired antibiotic is due to the temporary or permanent alteration of organisms genetic information. Spontaneous mutation of DNA Chromosomal alteration occurs by insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides within the genome. The mutation may be lethal to the cells. If the cells survive it will replicate and transmit its mutated properties to other cells. DNA transfer of drug resistance It occurs due to DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. Resistance gene are plasmid mediated and can be incorporated into host bacterial DNA. B) Altered expression of proteins in organism It occurs by variety of mechanisms, such as a lack of or alteration in target site, increased efflux of the drug or by the expression of antibiotic inactivating enzymes. Modification of target sites The change in the antibiotic target site through mutation can lead to resistance. Example, S pneumonia resistance to beta lactums involves alteration in one or more of major bacterial penicillin binding protein. Decreased accumulation If the drug is unable to attain access to the site of its action to kill the organisms resistance confers. Enzymic inactivation The ability to destroy antibiotic agent by the pathogen can confer resistance. Antibiotic inactivating enzymes include a) Beta lactamases (Hydrolytically inactivate beta lactum ring of penicillin) b) Acetyl transferases (Transfer an acetyl group to antibiotics) c) Esterases (Hydrolyze the lactone ring of macrolides) Antibiotic tolerance: The term antibiotic tolerance is used when the antibiotic merely inhibits its multiplication and growth but no longer kills the microbial pathogen. Tolerant microbial pathogen starts to grow after antibiotics are stopped. Cross resistance: It is defined as a phenomenon in which bacteria resistant to one drug is resistant to another drug to which the bacteria is not exposed before. Examples are Neomycin and Kanamycin. Prevention of drug resistance: (K.D Tripathy 2006) Indiscriminate and prolonged use of antibiotics should be stopped it will minimise resistant strains so there will be less chance to preferentially propagate Rapidly acting and narrow spectrum antibiotics should be preferred. Broad spectrum is used when a proper one cannot be determined When prolonged therapy is needed use combination of Anti microbial agents Treatment should be intensively done for the infections by organism which develops resistance Example, Staphylococcus aureus. Evaluation of urinary tract pathogen and principles of antibiotic dosing: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Sharma H L et al 2011) The traditional way for the evaluating urinary tract pathogens is urine culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. The major drawback of current microbiological analysis is time lapse of more than a day (Vesna Ivancic et al., 2008). The five important characteristic which influence frequency of dosing of all antibiotics are, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibit bacterial growth. To have effective therapy the clinically obtainable antimicrobial concentration should be greater than MIC. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic agent that results in 99.9% decline in colony count after incubation. Concentration dependent killing effect [CDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when higher blood concentration is reached periodically. These bactericidal antibiotics are said to be concentration -dependent killing (CDK). In drugs whose killing action is CDK the extent and rate of killing increases with increase in drug concentration. Examples Amino glycosides, Fluroquinolones. Time dependent killing effect [TDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when the blood concentrations are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration for the maximum long duration possible. These bactericidal antibiotics exhibit time -dependent killing (TDK). In drugs whose killing action is (TDK) the activity of antibiotics continue as long as serum concentration are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration. Examples Vancomycin, Beta Lactums. Post -antibiotic effect [PAE] A suppression of bacterial growth which is persistent after a brief exposure to antibiotics agents is said to be post-antibiotic effect. In post antibiotic effect the suppression or inhibition of bacterial growth is found even when the bacterial agent is no longer present or its concentration is very less than MIC. Examples of drugs which show significant PAE are Tetracycline, Amino glycosides. The aetiology of UTI and the antibiotic susceptibility of uropathogens have been changing over the past decade. The extensive uses of antibiotics have invariably resulted in the development of resistance which has become major problem in recent years. Antibiotic treatment which are of shorter duration than required, and the treatment administered without considering antibiotic and organism sensitivity as resulted in more resistance in bacterial strains (Mohammed Akram et al., 2007), (Eshwarappa M et al., 2011). To find out the most effective empirical treatment, investigating the epidemiology of UTI is a fundamental approach to guide the expected interventions (Getnet B et al., 2011). Since the distribution of microbial pathogens and their susceptibility is variable regionally and it is necessary to have a knowledge of uropathogens and sensitivity in a particular setting (Muhammed Naeem et al., 2010). The selection of antimicrobial agents require the following knowledge, The organisms identity The organisms susceptibility to particular agent The site of the infection Patient factors The safety of the agent The cost of therapy However, in critically ill patients need immediate treatment i.e. the therapy is initiated soon after specimens for laboratory analysis have been obtained before the culture result and selection of drug is influenced by the site of infection and patients history or by the association of particular organism Prevention and prophylaxis: (Roger Walker et al). Cranberry juice: It has been thought beneficial for the prevention of urinary tract infections. The benefit of drinking cranberry juice instead of antibiotics has reduced resistance of bacteria. Antibiotic prophylaxis: It is indicated to patients who are having reinfections. If the reinfection is after sexual intercourse then after intercourse a single dose of antibiotics is taken. In other cases low dose is beneficial. Patient counselling of UTI: Drinking plenty of clear liquids will keep urine diluted. Good personal hygiene following urination and bowel movements. Cleaning self front to back from vagina to anus. Urinate frequently to wash out bacteria that may be present, avoid holding urine for prolonged periods of time. Urinate after intercourse to wash out bacteria that may have been introduced into the urethra. Avoid wearing tight jeans, wet bathing suites. Present scenario of UTI: New studies reveal that the risk of urinary tract infection is high among boys who has not circumcised and had a visible urethral meatus. Another line of UTI research has indicated that women who are non-secretors of certain blood group antigens may be more prone to recurrent urinary tract infections because the cells lining the vagina and urethra may allow bacteria to attach more easily. Scientists have worked out an effective new approach to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) by dumping antibiotics. It involves so-called FimH antagonists, which are non antibiotic compounds and would not contribute to the growing problem of pathogens resistant to antibiotics. Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Background 1.1 Settlement of Refugees in Australia Australia has been settling refugees for more than a century. As per official records, settlement history begins in 1839, marking the arrival of Lutherans. Nevertheless, Australia’s modern approach to refugee settlement began with a new national refugee policy in 1977. It has, now, become a designated resettlement country for refugees and it receives a designated number of refugees on annual basis as on the agreement with UNHCR. According to the best estimates available, 2009-10 was the year in which Australia, since becoming an independent nation, passed the 750,000 mark in its intake of refugees and humanitarian entrants. In recent years, the incidents of persecution, conflict, generalized violence and human rights violation have significantly increased in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the border between Sudan and South Sudan. Surprisingly Australia has reduced its Refugee and Humanitarian Program to 13, 750 places while there is a considerable gap between resettlement needs and available places worldwide. At this point, it is important to acknowledge current refugee settlement issues in Australia. In general, settlement issues fall into four main categories as follows: In addition to these main categories, if we go further deeper into the context, it is obvious to see another horizon of challenges fall into following areas: Family and Youth Legal and Financial Community Relations Securing a meaningful employment is a truly challenging task among refugees mainly because of their lack of knowledge about Australian work place culture, no prior work experience in Australia, inadequate services to support employment transitions, discrimination, racism, lack of English proficiency, inability to get access to job market, and problems in recognizing overseas skills, experience and qualification. Finding an affordable house becomes a serious issue due to the competition in private rental market. Renting and retaining the house have equal consideration as finding the house. Discrimination and racism appear again as opposing factors. Moreover, financial hardship of refuges, size of families, their lack of Australian rental history, and unawareness about tenancy rights and responsibilities can be said as reasons for housing difficulties during their settlement. Educational barriers are different system of education, different languages, inadequate induction and support, high illiteracy among refugee communities, disruption of schooling for young people and enrollment based on age rather than knowledge. Inconsistency in policies and practices results in ignoring needs of young people with disrupted education. Health issues are normally caused by family separation, their prior experience and trauma, lack of social networks and consequent isolation. All of the above issues (Employment, Housing and Education) negatively affect the health and mental wellbeing of these communities. We can notice a great demand for interpreters in health sector since they are often required in counseling and consultation. Integrational conflicts and cultural shocks attempt to damage family relations and people’s values. For an example, younger ones adapt more readily and it leads to misunderstanding and confusion within families. Parenting becomes more challenging. Cultural clashes affect spousal relationships in a negative way and ends up in separation and divorces. Domestic violence and family breakdowns seem to be common in refugee communities. On the other hand, there are serious concerns about unaccompanied minors and single mothers with many children. When it comes to youth, due to their prior refugee experience, limited education or work experience, cultural dislocation and loss of established social networks lead them to frustration. Resulting frustration has its own dangerous consequences such as involving in illegal activities. Most of the refugees who come from war torn countries see the police as an oppressive authority. This viewpoint often creates misunderstanding between police and refugee communities. Racism does its part to damage this relationship worse than we assume. Refugees are in need for legal advices regarding their visa process, financial arrangements and documentations. Cultural incompetency of legal advisers and refugee’s lack of knowledge of legal systems can be highlighted under this area. Community relations between refugee communities and host communities are influenced by myth about refugees, cultural misunderstanding, discrimination and racism. These factors prevent both communities to create wider interactions for better understanding between them. Without a positive cooperation from local community, it is difficult to succeed in settlement. All these main categories and areas of settlement issues repeatedly highlight a gap between refugee communities and local community. And a detachment between refugees and local systems is also visible. These gap and detachment practically become great barriers for a smooth integration and successful settlement of refugees in Australia. 1.3 Problem Analysis Based on our background research on the settlement of refugees in Australia, we developed our initial problem tree. It was used as a draft during expert consultations. Its insightfulness helped us finding missing pieces if information and guided us to further research. Obviously the gap between refugee communities and local community together with local systems directly or either indirectly poses challenges to almost every problem we identified. Therefore, we identified community isolation as our focal problem. Consultation with refugee experts who have refugee backgrounds as well as remarkable experience from working with refugees settling in Victoria, particularly in South East of Melbourne, gave us clear picture of current settlement issues. Some of the case studies based on City of Greater Dandenong showed us a multiple dimensions of already identified problems. Our finalized problem tree, after sorting out the problems, is given below. Public misunderstanding was identified a crucial factor to discrimination. Some of the politicians and media play an important role in creating a negative image for refugees. For an example, if a refugee is accused to be involved in a crime scene, they flash the news by highlighting the background of this particular refugee community and paint a red color on the rest of the community without considering the consequences. In fact, these sort of careless actions widen the gap between local community and refugee communities. It is evident to see lack of confidence among refugees mainly due to cultural alienation, past refugee experience, language incompetency and lack of knowledge of local context and local systems. Considering the cultural alienation, it is happened to be the outcome of difference between the unique characteristics of different cultures. Australians can be identified with individualism, lack of social cohesion and materialism whereas most of the refugee communities can be characterized as collectivist societies. Mutual understanding is necessary to promote better understanding of these differences and that requires considerably a long time. Among the effects of community isolation, identity crisis is something which has profound effect even on other effects either directly or indirectly. But, normally, it doesn’t get enough attention from settlement programs. Acculturation means that members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of a dominant group. It can be reciprocal but in case of refugees it is only one way. It causes loss of separate ethnic identification. People feel a sense of powerlessness as a result. Psychosocial repercussions heavily damage human personality. As a result, refugees look at perceived threats, it can be either real or even imagined, in their lives and recognize it may require resources we don’t have. It includes threats to their social status, social esteem, acceptance within the society and threat to their self-worth. In long time, all these effects create social discord which is not good for both local community and refugee communities. 1.4 Objective Analysis At the end of the objective analysis, we came up with positive results, but not for each of the identified problem statements. We left a question mark for racism as it can’t be directly addressed. Nobody is going to accept that they are racist. Therefore, we decided to better leave it alone in the objective tree and reduce its impact indirectly from promoting public understanding. Objective tree was adjusted with some rearrangements with optimistic conditions. Alternative analysis pointed out the ongoing programs and projects by AMES, state government and other service providers in the area of employment, housing, language, education and future promises to improve current refugee and humanitarian programs. At this point, it is important to acknowledge Community Guides Program, Luv-A-Duck project and Ucan3 Youth Program of AMES as well as its support to social enterprises such as Sorghum Sisters, Cultural Cooks and Global Cafà ©, and support for community initiatives. We noticed lack of attention on the refugees’ rights and their cultural validity. It was finally decided to promote community engagement by increasing the level of confidence among refugees and creating social embrace with public understanding. Community Engagement will create cultural validity for refugee communities by providing them greater opportunities for social networking. Mutual understanding between local community and refugee communities would have positive impact in long-term and that would consequently bring social harmony in the City of Greater Dandenong.